- Details
We have been documenting China's accomplishments in the field of "carbon conversion", which include coal conversion technology developed along the lines of WVU's "West Virginia Process" for direct coal liquefaction, as well as technology for the recycling of Carbon Dioxide, into liquid hydrocarbon fuels, which we perceive to be similar to Penn State University's "Tri-reforming" Process, for CO2 and Methane conversion, which, as we have documented, has been published by PSU's Chunsan Song and Craig Grimes.
Herein, via the attached link and enclosed document, Chinese researchers report improvements in the catalysis of the reaction between Carbon Dioxide and Methane, to synthesize the liquid fuel, and gasoline and plastics raw material, Methanol.
Some brief excerpts:
"Studies in Preparation of Gas for Methanol Synthesis by Methane Reforming with Steam and CO2
Tang, Song-Bai, et. al.
The Laboratory of Natural Gas Chemistry; Chengdu Inst. of Organic Chem.; Chinese Academy of Sciences
1996
Abstract
An experimental preparation of feedstock gas for methanol synthesis by methane reforming with steam and CO2 has been investigated with (a) newly prepared ... nickel-based catalyst ... (which) ... had excellent activity ... . ... methane conversion reached 95% ... (with) ... no carbon deposition.
Conclusion
... A methane conversion of 95% was achieved. The synthesis gas for methanol production in industry can be produced (from CO2, methane and steam). ... The structure and properties of SYM 1 catalyst remained unchanged ... (and) SYM 1 catalyst may be used in industry."
As we have elsewhere documented, Methane can be manufactured from either Coal or, using the Sabatier or similar processes, Carbon Dioxide. Then, by using even more Carbon Dioxide, that methane can be synthesized into the liquid fuel and, as per the ExxonMobil MTG(r) Process, gasoline raw material, Methanol.
- Details
We have dwelled, we are certain, to the point of weariness with many of our readers, on fact that Carbon Dioxide, rather than being a troublesome pollutant, is, instead, a valuable raw material resource that arises, in only a small way, compared to natural sources, from our use of coal.
In the course of it all, we have documented that, as far back as the 1960's, it was known among our Defense establishment that, as the Nobel Committee had even much earlier affirmed, Carbon Dioxide could be collected and converted, recycled, into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons which could serve as raw materials for the production of gasoline and plastics.
More recently, our US Department of Energy has been developing the technology to use environmental, "renewable", energy to accomplish the transmutation of CO2 into useful hydrocarbons.
Much of the work, as we have documented to be true of that undertaken by Rich Diver, at Sandia National Laboratory, has been focused on developing the technology and equipment to harness solar, "light", energy to enable the recycling of CO2.
Herein, we find that our US DOE has engaged others to research such technology, as well. .
Under Contract Number DE-FG26-99FT40579, the University of Akron, OH, has been developing:
"CO2 Sequestration and Recycle by Photocatalysis with Visible Light
Final Report; Starting Date: 7-1-1999; End Date: 6-30-2000
Steven S. C. Chuang
Oct. 2001
DE-FG26-99FT40579
Steven S. C. Chuang
Oct. 2001
DE-FG26-99FT40579
Department of Chemical Engineering; The University of Akron; Akron, OH 44325-3906
ABSTRACT
Visible light-photocatalysis could provide a cost-effective route to recycle CO2 to useful
chemicals or fuels. Development of an effective catalyst for the photocatalytic synthesis requires
(i) the knowledge of the surface band gap and its relation to the surface structure, (ii) the reactivity of adsorbates and their reaction pathways, and (iii) the ability to manipulate the actives site for adsorption, surface reaction, and electron transfer. The objective of this research is to study the photo-catalytic activity of TiO 2-base catalyst. A series of TiO 2-supported metal catalysts were prepared for determining the activity and selectivity for the synthesis of methane and methanol. 0.5 wt% Cu/SrTiO 3 was found to be the most active and selective catalyst for methanol synthesis. The activity of the catalyst decreased in the order: Ti silsesquioxane > Cu/SrTiO 3 > Pt/TiO 2 > Cu/TiO2 > TiO2 > Rh/TiO2. To further increase the number of site for the reaction, we propose to prepare monolayer and multiplayer TiOx on high surface area mesoporous oxides. These catalysts will be used for in situ IR study in the Phase II research project to determine the reactivity of adsorbates. Identification of active adsorbates and sites will allow incorporation of acid/basic sites to alter the nature of CO2 and H2O adsorbates and with Pt/Cu sites to direct reaction pathways of surface intermediates, enhancing the overall activity and selectivity for methanol and hydrocarbon synthesis. The overall goal of this research is to provide a greater predictive capability for the design of visible light-photosynthesis catalysts by a deeper understanding of the reaction kinetics and mechanism as well as by better control of the coordination/chemical environment of active sites.
CONCLUSION
The long-term goal of our research has been to develop a fundamental understanding of the reactivity of adsorbates and their relationships with the nature of sites, reaction kinetics, and deactivation resistance. 0.5 wt% Cu/SrTiO 3 was found to be the most active and selective catalyst for methanol synthesis. The activity of the catalyst decreased in the order: Ti silsesquioxane > Cu/SrTiO 3 > Pt/TiO 2 > Cu/TiO2 > TiO2 > Rh/TiO2. To further increase the number of site for the reaction, we propose to prepare monolayer and multiplayer TiO x on high surface area mesoporous oxides. Preparation of supported monolayer oxides and sulfide catalysts with metal sites and acid/base functionality as well as investigation of their structures and catalytic properties constitutes an important and innovative element of next phase study. The unique coordination of these monolayer sites and their chemical environments promises to open opportunity for development of new types of photocatalysis for methanol and hydrocarbon synthesis from CO2 and H2O."
----------
We'll close here with a few comments, and a question. Following is the full and rather impressive list of references. We include it without editing just, once again, to illustrate how much information might really be "out there", which would, as with the technologies for converting coal into liquid fuel and chemicals, allow us to overcome the foreign petroleum tyranny through the full, and fully-informed, use of our own, abundant, domestic resources.
Finally, though, we quote, with some creative editing, the concluding sentence of the Abstract: there is technology which "promises ... opportunity for development of new types of methanol and hydrocarbon synthesis from CO2 and H2O".
That conclusion was submitted to our USDOE nearly nine years ago. Has anything been built on that foundation in what has been the better part of a decade since?
Opportunity has knocked. It's still waiting for someone to open the door.
REFERENCES
1. H. Herzog, E. Drake, and E. Adams, in “CO2 Capture, Reuse, and Storage technologies for Mitigating Global Climate Change”, DOE Order No: DE-AF-22-96PC01257.
2. M. Anpo, in “Surface Photochemistry”, John Wiley and Sons, New York 1995.
3. C. Kutal, N. Sepone, in “Photosensitive Metal-Organic System”, Advances in Chemistry
Series 238, American Chemical Society, Washington DC, 1993.
4. M. Anpo, H. Yamashita, Y. Ichihashi, Y. Fujii, M. Honda, J. Phys. Chem.:B 101, 26322636 (1997).
5. M. Anpo, S. G. Zhang, Y. Fujii, Y. Ichihashi, H. Yamashita, K. Koyano, T. Tatsumi, in “The Photocatalysis Reduction of CO2 with H2O on Ti-MCM-41 and Ti-MCM-48 Mesoporous Zeolite Catalysts at 295 K”, Apcat’97, Pohang University, Korea, 1997.
6. A.L. Linsbigler, G. Lu, and J.T. Yates Jr., Chem. Rev. 95, 735 (1995).
7. M. Voinov, and J. Augustynski, in “Heterogeneous Photocatalysis”, (M. Schiavello Ed.), Photoscience and Photoengineering, Vol. 3., p. 1. Wiley, New York, 1997.
8. M. Tanaka, in “Photochemistry on Solid Surfaces” (M. Anpo and T. Matsura, Eds.), Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, Vol. 47, p. 3. Elsevier, New York, 1989.
9. L. Palmisano, and A. Sclafani, in “Heterogeneous Photocatalysis”, (M. Schiavello Ed.), Photoscience and Photoengineering, Vol. 3., p. 109. Wiley, New York, 1997.
10. S. Yanagida, S. Matsuoka, M. Kanemoto, K. Yamamoto, K. I. Ishihara, T. Ogata, and Y.Wada, in “Research in Photosynthesis”, 9th International Congress on Photosynthesis, Vol. II, p. 833. Kluwer, Boston, 1992.
11. M. Gratzel, and K. Kalyanasundaram, in “Photosensitization and Photocatalysis Using Inorganic and Organometallic Compounds” (K. Kalyanasundaram and M. Gratzel, Eds.), Catalysis by Metal Complexes, Vol. 14, p. 260, Kluwar, Boston, 1993.
12. M. Gratzel, “Heterogeneous Photochemical Electron Transfer”. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl., 1989.
13. A. Kudo, K. Sayama, A. Tanaka, K. Asakura, K. Domen, K. Maruya, T. Onishi, J. Catal. 120, 337 (1989).
14. C. Louis and M. Che, “ Anchoring and Grafting of Coordination Metal Complexes onto Oxide Surface”, Preparation of Solid Catalysis, (G. Ertl, H. Knozinger, and Weitkamp Eds.) 427-459 Wiley-VCH, Weiheim 1999.
15. Pieter L. J. Gunter and J. W. (Hans) Niemantsverdrift, Catal. Rev. 39, 77-168 (1997).
16. S.B. McCullen and J. C. Vertuli, “Method for Stabilizing Synthetic Mesoporous Crystalline Material”, U.S. Patent 5, 156, 829 (1992).
17. Yoshifumi Hirao, Chikafumi Yokoyama and Makoto Misono, Chem. Commun. 5, 597598 (1996).
18. M. E. Bartam, T.A. Michalske, and J. W. Rogers, Jr., J. Phys. Chem. 95, 4453-4463 (1991).
19. D. C. Koningsberger, and R. Prins, Eds., “X-ray Absorption: Principles, Applications, Techniques of EXAFS, SEXAFS, and XANES”, Wiley, New York, 1998.
- Details
The enclosed report was made relative to NASA plans for a manned mission to Mars, in order to help design a rocket fuel production technology that could be reduced to practice on that planet, and enable a return of Martian explorers back to Earth.
Seriously.
Herein, it's demonstrated that Carbon Dioxide prevalent in the Martian atmosphere can be combined with water from ice in the Martian soil, to make methane and methanol fuel.
Different types of reaction options, including Sabatier and Fischer-Tropsch technologies, were examined; and, a high-efficiency process, "electrochemical reduction", was found by these researchers to be the most efficient for converting Carbon Dioxide, with Hydrogen from water, into methane and methanol.
The complete dissertation, enclosed and accessible via the link, consists of many calculations and formulae that are far beyond our scope.
We'll thus limit our excerpt to the title, revealing introduction, and significant conclusions. Note, especially, the very first statement of:
"Electrochemical Reduction of Carbon Dioxide
Matthew R. Hudson
Department of Chemistry, State University of New York at Potsdam, Potsdam New York 13676
December 9, 2005
The conversion of carbon dioxide into useable hydrocarbons is a process that has been around since the early 1900s. The Sabatier and the Fischer-Tropsch processes are processes that involve the conversion of hydrogen and carbon oxides into hydrocarbons, but especially into hydrocarbons used for fuels. French chemist Paul Sabatier discovered the Sabatier process and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913. His process involves the conversion of CO2 and hydrogen gas into methane and water in the presence of a nickel catalyst at high temperatures and high pressures. The process has been considered in the research of alternative fuels.
Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch invented the Fischer-Tropsch process in the 1920s. The process involves two steps and is also seen as an alternative fuel source. The first step is the partial oxidation of coal or natural gas fuels into hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide. The carbon oxide and hydrogen are then converted into more useful methanol and methane fuels. Although it is still currently being used, the Fischer-Tropsch process was a major factor in the German effort in World War II, because they did not have an abundance of oil, but did have vast amounts of coal to produce synthetic oil.
Although both these methods are still being pursued today, the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide provides a better result than these historical processes. The electrochemical reduction process involves CO2 gas and uses H2 gas or various aqueous electrolytes as the source of the H+. It also produces methane or methanol and environmentally friendly water as products, but can also give a variety of other hydrocarbon products and even O2 gas as a product. Another advantage is better chemical efficiency, the physical yield of product compared to the amount of by-products formed, than the other two processes. Also, depending on the reduction method high Faradaic efficiency, the energy efficiency with which a species is electrolyzed at a given charge, can be accomplished. High Faradaic efficiencies suggest that the process requires lower energy to complete the reaction making the process more feasible. The consideration that this can be achieved at low temperatures is also a benefit when compared to the Sabatier process which involves both high temperature and pressure. The purpose of finding a better method of the reduction of CO2 to methane and methanol fuels includes the use for in situ fuel production for a mission to Mars. This coupled with the possibility of applications on Earth making the electrochemical reduction of CO2 promising.
Finding a better CO2 reduction process is essential for a possible manned mission to Mars. The Martian atmosphere has a composition of 95.3% CO2, as opposed to the 0.03% composition here on Earth. Accounting only for the gaseous CO2 on Mars, this is enough carbon dioxide to make sustainable human life possible if breathable air, water, and especially fuel can be generated in situ. Considering only the fuel production, there are three categories of propellants that could be used: C-free fuels (such as H2 or SiH4), H-free fuels (CO), or C,H-fuels (CH4, CH3OH, C2H2 etc). The electrochemical reduction of CO2 produces a variety of these fuels, especially the hydrocarbon fuel methane.
The necessity of a better process stems directly from the fact that all three methods, Sabatier, Fischer-Tropsch, and electrochemical reduction all require that hydrogen be present in some step of the reaction. Since the atmosphere of Mars contains only a trace of water, subterranean water must be used as an in situ source of hydrogen.
Another consideration is again related to the Martian atmosphere. The Martian atmosphere has a mean temperature of 210 K and a high of 293 K.14. ... the formation of methane is extremely efficient at low temperatures ... .
Methanol was used as a electrolyte solution in the low temperature considerations, but also is a viable fuel. Under “Earth” conditions, the ... production of methanol via reduction ... leads to another fuel source, other than methane, that can be achieved effectively.
In addition to the uses for possible Mars missions, the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide could have possible uses here on Earth. With the reduction of fossil fuels occurring at an increasing rate, methane and methanol could serve as possible alternative fuels to crude oil around the world. In addition to fuel production, the electrolysis of carbon dioxide could be extremely important for the lessening of the concentration of green-house gases in the atmosphere. These are possible uses that are proposed.
Conclusions
The electrochemical reduction of CO2 is achieved with high efficiencies at low temperatures ... . These conditions are favorable for the in-situ fuel production on Mars. ... With good Faradaic efficiencies and chemical efficiencies, the electrolysis of CO2 is a better method of obtaining methane and methanol than the Sabatier or Fischer-Tropsch processes alone because it can be achieved at lower energies.
The electrochemical reduction of CO2 is viable for space, but the home applications are of importance here on Earth and need to be considered in the years to come and could even be used here for fuel before the reaching a land far away."
-------
We'll use the author's own words to sum it all up: "The electrochemical reduction of CO2 is achieved with high efficiencies at low temperatures ... . The electrochemical reduction of CO2 ... could even be used here for fuel."
Could be, should be.
One thing that we think should be taken into account, as well, is that these processes result in the co-production of Oxygen. If you have to have a by-product from an industrial process, that's not a bad one to have, we would suppose.
And, don't forget: "The conversion of carbon dioxide into useable hydrocarbons is a process that has been around since the early 1900s."
Beats the heck out of spending a big bunch of money on CO2, to pipe it all to, and pump it all down, a leaky geologic sequestration rat hole. And, combined with the conversion of coal into liquid fuels, Carbon Dioxide recycling could give us, in the United States, the kind of energy self-sufficiency our astronauts will absolutely need to have on Mars. Although we do bet that some petroleum power would find some way to get a tanker full of oil to our Martian colonists - if the price was right; and, we were willing to pay that price.
- Details
We've lately been documenting Penn State University's "Tri-reforming" technology, wherein Carbon Dioxide can be combined, recycled, with Methane, to synthesize more complex hydrocarbons suitable for use as liquid fuels or organic chemical and plastics manufacturing raw materials.
We've thoroughly documented, in very recent reports from very credible sources, that Methane needed for Carbon Dioxide recycling can itself be manufactured from Carbon Dioxide, via the Sabatier process, as is now employed by NASA, again as we've documented, aboard the International Space Station.
We have also reported that the needed methane for tri-reforming CO2 can be synthesized from coal. And, we herein document that particular bit of useful information has been known and established since at least 1957, although the well-documented production of "town gas", from coal, in the latter half of the 19th and early half of the 20th centuries, for public and private heating and lighting purposes, should have been evidence enough of that fact.
Via the enclosed link and following excerpt, we have:
"Title: Fluid-bed pretreatment of bituminous coals and ... and direct hydrogenation ... to pipeline gas.
Authors: Channabasappa, K.C.; Linden, H.R.
Date: January 1, 1957; OSTI ID: 5447986
Journal: Am. Chem. Soc., Div. Gas Fuel Chem.; New York, NY, USA, Sep 1957
Research Organization: Institute of Gas Technology, Chicago
Abstract: The fluid-bed pretreatment of low-rank coals in nitrogen, air, carbon dioxide, and steam atmospheres was investigated in a bench-scale unit at atmospheric pressure, and at maximum temperatures of 400 and 720/sup 0/F, in a study of the production of non-agglomerating, reactive chars suitable for fluid-bed hydrogenation to pipeline gas. Reactivities of the chars in respect to methane and ethane production were determined in batch hydrogenation tests at 1350/sup 0/F, approximately 17 standard cubic feet of hydrogen per pound of char and approximately 3000 psig maximum pressure. The results of this study indicated that the optimum pretreatment temperature is 600/sup 0/F for bituminous coal and 500/sup 0/F for lignite, and that there is little variation in the reactivity of the chars produced in nitrogen, air, and steam atmospheres. The chars produced in a carbon dioxide atmosphere showed consistently lower reactivity. Substantial agglomeration during pretreatment or hydrogasification occurred only with high-volatile bituminous coal. The extent of agglomeration increased with increases in pretreating temperature, and in steam and carbon dioxide atmospheres. Under the routine test conditions, the chars produced 50 to 55 weight percent (moisture-ash-free) of pipeline gas containing 70 to 80 mole percent of methane plus ethane upon reaching a hydrogasification temperature of 1350/sup 0/F. At higher hydrogen/char ratios, substantially higher conversions of pretreated lignite were attained."
We've known, in the US, for more than half a century, since 1957, that we can convert coal into methane. We now know, thanks to Penn State University, and others, that we can use methane to productively recycle Carbon Dioxide into valuable hydrocarbons, including liquid fuel.
- Details
We have cited Dr. Chunsan Song, of Penn State University, relative to Carbon Dioxide recycling, several times of late, and we herein present his bona fides and credentials:
"Chunshan Song is director of applied catalysis in the Energy Laboratory at the Energy Institute, and associate professor of fuel science in the Department of Energy and Geo-Environmental Engineering at Pennsylvania State University (206 Hosler Building, University Park, PA 16802; His research interests include catalytic fuel processing, reforming for syngas and hydrogen production from natural gas and carbon dioxide, shape-selective catalysis, synthesis and application of catalytic materials, conversion of hydrocarbon resources, and fuel chemistry. He has won several awards including the Wilson Award
for Outstanding Research at Penn State in 2000 and the NEDO Fellowship Award from Japan in 1998. He received his B.S. degree in chemical engineering from Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China, and an M.S. degree and Ph.D. in applied chemistry from Osaka University, Osaka, Japan."
for Outstanding Research at Penn State in 2000 and the NEDO Fellowship Award from Japan in 1998. He received his B.S. degree in chemical engineering from Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China, and an M.S. degree and Ph.D. in applied chemistry from Osaka University, Osaka, Japan."
With the enclosed link, attached file and following excerpt, we document even further that the science exists which would enable us to profit from the wise use of our Carbon Dioxide, as opposed to being fleeced through misinformed attempts to dispose of it.
As follows:
"Tri-reforming: A new process for reducing CO2 emissions;
January 2001
Chunshan Song
Chunshan Song
"Researchers at Penn State have developed a new process for the effective conversion and use of carbon dioxide in flue gas from power plants. The threat of global warming has fueled worldwide efforts to develop
technology that reduces carbon dioxide emissions. The conversion and utilization of CO2 present an interesting paradigm to scientists and engineers because CO2 is an important source of carbon for fuels and future chemical feedstocks.
technology that reduces carbon dioxide emissions. The conversion and utilization of CO2 present an interesting paradigm to scientists and engineers because CO2 is an important source of carbon for fuels and future chemical feedstocks.
In general, CO2 can be separated, recovered, and purified from concentrated CO2 sources by two or more steps based on absorption, adsorption, or membrane separation. Even the recovery of CO2 from concentrated sources requires substantial energy input. The separation and purification steps can produce pure CO2 from power plants’ flue gases, but they also add considerable cost to the conversion or sequestration system. Current CO2 separation processes require significant amounts of energy that reduce a power plant’s net electricity output by as much as 20%. Although new technology developments could make this recovery easier to handle and more economical to operate in power plants, it is highly desirable to develop novel ways to use the CO2 in flue gases without going through the separation step.
The tri-reforming process we are developing at Pennsylvania State University, is a three-step reaction process. It avoids the separation step and has the promise of being cost-efficient for producing industrially useful synthesis gas.
Using flue gas to convert CO2
Using flue gas to convert CO2
Flue gases from fossil fuel-based electricity-generating units represent the major concentrated CO2 sources in the United States. If CO2 is separated, as much as 100 MW for a typical 500-MW coal-fired power plant would be necessary for today’s CO2 capture processes based on alkanolamines. It would be highly desirable to use the flue gas mixtures for CO2 conversion without the preseparation step. On the basis of our research, we believe that there is a unique advantage of using flue gases directly, rather than preseparated and purified CO2 from flue gases, for the proposed tri-reforming process.
In our proposed tri-reforming process, CO2 from the flue gas does not need to be separated. In fact, water and oxygen along with CO2 in the waste flue gas from fossil fuel–based power plants will be used to tri-reform natural gas and produce synthesis gas (syngas).
When CO2 reforming is coupled to steam reforming, this problem (carbon deposition - JtM) can be mitigated effectively. This carbon formation in CO2 reforming can be reduced by adding oxygen. Direct partial oxidation of methane to produce syngas and partial combustion of methane for energy-efficient autothermal syngas production are being explored.
The combination of dry reforming with steam reforming can accomplish two important missions: to produce syngas with desired H2/CO ratios and mitigate the carbon formation that is significant for dry reforming. Integrating steam reforming and partial oxidation with CO2 reforming could dramatically reduce or eliminate carbon formation on reforming catalyst, thus increasing catalyst life and process efficiency. Therefore, the
proposed tri-reforming can solve two important problems that are encountered in individual processing. Incorporating oxygen in the reaction generates heat in situ that can be used to increase energy efficiency;
oxygen also reduces or eliminates the carbon formation on the reforming catalyst. The tri-reforming can be achieved with natural gas and flue gases using the waste heat in the power plant and the heat generated in
situ from oxidation with the oxygen that is present in flue gas.
proposed tri-reforming can solve two important problems that are encountered in individual processing. Incorporating oxygen in the reaction generates heat in situ that can be used to increase energy efficiency;
oxygen also reduces or eliminates the carbon formation on the reforming catalyst. The tri-reforming can be achieved with natural gas and flue gases using the waste heat in the power plant and the heat generated in
situ from oxidation with the oxygen that is present in flue gas.
The tri-reforming process ... is the key step in the recently proposed CO2-based tri-generation of fuels, chemicals, and electricity, ... . In principle, once the syngas with the desired H2/CO ratio is produced from tri-reforming, it can be used to produce liquid fuels by established routes such as F–T synthesis and to manufacture industrial chemicals such as methanol and acetic acid.
... tri-reforming of natural gas using flue gas from power plants appears to be feasible and safe ...".
--------------
As we many times documented: The technologies exist that would enable us both to convert our abundant coal into the liquid fuels we need; and, to recycle the primary by-product of our coal use, Carbon Dioxide, into even more liquid fuels and chemical manufacturing raw materials.
Why aren't we employing any of those technologies, especially in US Coal Country?
Join Friends of Coal
Be part of West Virginia's coal industry future. Together, we can continue building a stronger, more prosperous Mountain State by supporting our miners and communities.
West Virginia Coal Association
The West Virginia Coal Association has been the voice of the coal industry for over 100 years, advocating for safe, responsible mining practices and supporting the communities that depend on coal.
Join the FOC
Become a Friend of Coal and download our app to stay connected and support the industry.
